Understanding the Nature and Consequences of Transgressions and Forgiveness in the Workplace in India

Forgiveness traditionally has been the subject matter of religion and philosophy (Enright et al., 2020). During the past two decades, a sudden upsurge in the scientific study of forgiveness has been noted after the Positive Psychology movement (Legaree et al., 2007). Forgiveness refers to giving up resentment against or the desire to punish, stop being angry with, pardon, or to give up all claims to punish or exact penalty for an offence (Merriam-Webster Dictionary, 2019). Forgiveness helps individuals to grant complete absolution and redemption, frees from resentment of past and fosters well-being, positive relationships, and flourishing (Epstein et al., 1998).

Studies report that forgiveness cultivates internal harmony, positive emotional and cognitive frameworks, reparative strength, compassion, well-being, health outcomes, and productive relationships for children and adults (Demertzis, 2020; Pandey et al., 2020). It promotes positive health behaviours, social support, and flourishing for individuals and groups because of its inherent qualities of reparation, resilience, coping, and enhanced self-acceptance (Maynard et al., 2016). It carries positive emotions that directly strengthen physical and psychological health by shaping perceptions, attributions and physiological processes (Enright et al., 2020; Karner-Huțuleac, 2020), and it reduces depression, anxiety, and suicidal behaviours in adolescents and adults (Barcaccia et al., 2020).

Given these widely reported benefits of forgiveness, in the recent past, some studies (Firulescu et al., 2020; Giebels & Janssen, 2005) focused on understanding the impact of forgiveness on various indices of organisational outcomes. These studies observed that workplace conflicts and transgressions, varying in nature and severity, may result in absenteeism (Firulescu et al., 2020), lack of productivity (Mulki et al., 2015), stress (May et al., 2021), and adverse health outcomes (Salvador, 2019).

Workplace transgressions and conflicts may also affect the behaviour and motivations of employees which may lead to withdrawal, reduced cooperation, and aggressive behaviour (Skarlicki & Folger, 1997). Organisational relationships differ from ordinary human interactions and thus, they may reflect dissimilar nature, dynamics and mechanisms of forgiveness (Enright et al., 2020), due to the specific nature of stress and conflicts involved in the former (Toussaint et al., 2019). The processes and dynamics of interpersonal and social life may represent a different set of social and interpersonal contexts, communication patterns, compulsions and life outcomes as compared to that in the workplace. Workplace forgiveness may occur in more structured and formal relationships where mutuality and cooperation may be unavoidable and the relationships may have legal and formal structures with more tangible outcomes and scope. Here the nature and impact of transgressions may occur more concretely and explicitly and forgiveness may be negotiated. The negotiated aspect of forgiveness is more social and contextual (Andrews, 2000) and may involve justice, discrimination, caste, and class identities with current socio-political happenings and history of relationships in the society.

From the preceding review of literature, it is amply clear that the scientific study of forgiveness has been largely conducted in American and Western cultural contexts (Temoshok & Chandra, 2000). Most of the modern theories of forgiveness (Worthington, 2006) lend their genesis in urban and individualistic American and Western cultures that conceptualize interpersonal conflicts to be individual-focused (Demertzis, 2020; Karner-Huțuleac, 2020). These individualistic and situational models of forgiveness may not be useful for collectivistic cultures where conflicts and transgressions may have community orientations with emphasis on interdependence and salience of social and cultural norms (Sandage et al., 2003) rather than on the situational context. Collectivist culture lays more emphasis on social harmony, interdependent self and compulsory reconciliation in the face of conflicts (Sandage et al., 2003). Re-establishing damaged relationships, social harmony, and compassion may be more important goals in collectivistic societies (e.g., India) than the relevance of avoidance and revenge (Sandage et al., 2003). Thus, the nature and dynamics of workplace transgressions and forgiveness may differ across individualistic and collectivistic cultures.

Despite the salience of studying workplace forgiveness in a collectivistic culture, studies focusing on workplace forgiveness in Eastern cultures, such as India, are somewhat lacking. The study of the nature of transgressions and associated dynamics of forgiveness in workplaces in countries like India is important because without taking into account the cultural and situational distinctions in the understanding of forgiveness, it will remain distant from lived experiences (McCullough et al., 2000).

Research suggests that cultural and contextual differences may cause differences in the construal of the role of apology, transgression, and models of forgiveness in practice which may have significant organisational outcomes of specific nature (DiBlasio, 2001). An exploration of the nature of forgiveness in the Indian cultural milieu is also essential as cultural differences in power distance, uncertainty avoidance, and other factors have been reported (Lennon, 2013). For example, in collectivistic societies like India, Taiwan and Japan, individuals are influenced more by culturally-defined roles (Takaku et al., 2001) and judge transgressions by taking into account the key historical events (Mullet & Neto, 2009), the conceptions of the offended person or group (Bagnulo et al., 2009), self-construal group loyalty and support, social connection and security (Deal & Prince, 2003), and social harmony (Joo et al., 2019) as compared to individuals from individualistic cultures.

Indian society is basically a mix of a traditionalist society and a modernist society with a prominence of the former. Here people have a strong inclination towards collective values which involve relationship and group norms orientation, social harmony, and interdependence (Hofstede, 1984; Tripathi, 2019). The mindset enshrined in collectivistic values may exert incessant influence on their behaviour and functioning in all spheres of life including forgiveness in the workplace (Dahiya & Rangnekar, 2020).

Apart from these reasons, most of the earlier studies have focused on factors that promote forgiveness, while from the perspective of a systems approach, it is also important to explore the factors that create a hindrance to forgiveness (Bies et al., 2016). Research suggests that the nature, type, and severity of transgressions play a significant role in forgiveness (e.g., Gabriels & Strelan, 2018). However, little has been done to qualitatively explore the nature of transgression in the workplace in Indian settings particularly for understanding the dynamics of transgressions and forgiveness.

Another important rationale for undertaking the current study was the fact that the studies on workplace forgiveness are mostly based on self-report methods (Toussaint et al., 2018). The use of quantitative methods does not allow reflecting much upon the occurrence of transgressions and forgiveness processes in the workplace settings due to the cultural differences in the conceptualisations of transgressions and forgiveness. However, qualitative methods are deemed more helpful where the nature and attributes of the construct/s are not explicit, the significant correlates are not known or there is no guiding framework or theory (Creswell et al., 2004).

Thus, the current study not only differs in goals and methods from earlier studies but also its findings may be of help to understand various outcomes at the workplace. For example, it may shed light on the methods employees use to understand workplace transgressions and strategies they employ to exhibit forgiveness. These new insights may be of help to improve relationships, productivity and other positive outcomes at the workplace. They may also help employers to develop forgiveness-based interventions aimed at relieving their employees from emotional constraints and instability in work relationships (Cao et al., 2021). These, in turn, may enhance their job satisfaction, work engagement, creativity, cooperation, commitment, productivity and well-being (Cao et al., 2021) and may reduce aggression and burnout at the workplace (Liao et al., 2013).

The aforesaid gaps and the interwoven nature of transgression and forgiveness necessitated undertaking this study to explore the nature of transgressions in the workplace and associated dynamics of forgiveness using qualitative research methods. Understanding transgressions may be relevant to other aspects of forgiveness, such as unforgiveness (Rapske et al., 2010; Stackhouse et al., 2018). The presence or absence of a climate of procedural justice and organizational structures (absolute and hierarchical) has significant implications to underscore transgressions, forgiveness, and their consequent outcomes (Aquino et al., 2006).

Method and Materials

Results

According to the above-stated procedure, the data collection and analyses were carried out. Each participant was assigned a code. For example, 33 male (M) participants were allotted codes from M_1 to M_33 while 15 female (F) participants were assigned codes from F_1 to F_15. To show the organisational affiliation, GR (government sector) and PR (private sector) suffixes were added with the code of each participant. The following themes were identified from the data analysis:

Discussion

The basic objective of the current study was to understand the nature and consequences of transgressions and forgiveness in the diverse workplace settings (government and private) in the Indian cultural context. Five major themes were identified after the thematic analysis of the interviews comprising two themes related to workplace transgressions and three themes pertaining to workplace forgiveness: (1) Multiplicity of the sources of workplace transgressions, (2) Communications of workplace transgressions, (3) Facilitators of workplace forgiveness, (4) Barriers to workplace forgiveness, and (5) Benefits of workplace forgiveness.

The study findings revealed that workplace wrongdoings are caused by a variety of factors and many channels are present in organizations that help employees become familiar with them. Theme 1 denotes that interpersonal/work-related inappropriate behaviours of co-workers, as well as administrative malfunctioning of the employees’ workplace settings, are major sources of perceived transgressions. For example, anger, indiscipline, misbehaviours by seniors, negative comments, exploitation, and discrimination were some unacceptable personal and work behaviours behind their perceived transgressions. Their descriptions of transgressions generally ranged from low to moderate in severity.

Although the role of transgressions in forgiveness is well-studied, there is little research on the nature and types of workplace wrongdoings. The present study findings lend partial support to previous research that suggests workplace wrongdoings to include a wide range of behaviours related to violations of civil, criminal and administrative laws, professional codes and contraventions of organizational rules, social norms, and ethical principles (Palmer et al., 2016). The differences in the perceived workplace transgressions may be caused by differences in age, sex, race, ethnicity, education, and personality of the employees (Bashir et al., 2014). Research suggests that understanding the nature, types, and severity of transgressions is significant for facilitating forgiveness in all human relationships, including those at the workplace (Gabriels & Strelan, 2018). Cheating or betrayal of trust is a significant transgression that may inhibit workplace forgiveness (Strelan et al., 2017). Many of the types of workplace transgressions come under the comprehensive classification given by Pearce et al. (2018) who divided them into reactive and active categories.

Theme 2 shows that the types and severity of workplace wrongdoings are communicated to the victim employees through a variety of channels such as unwarranted criticism, repetition of wrongdoings, vigilant gestures, warnings, and threats of appraisal. Thus, the study findings reveal that workplace transgressions and their manifestations differ in nature, type, severity, and source which may have significant implications for workplace forgiveness. To some extent, these findings are mirrored in previous studies. For example, King and Hermodson (2000) reported that personal ethics, the severity of the wrongdoing and compliance or non‐compliance with policy and procedures contribute to the perceived workplace transgressions and their reporting.

Thus, the perception and communication of workplace transgressions are determined by a variety of individual, situational and organizational issues. Similarly, individual differences in values, personality traits, and life goals may cause differences in the perceptions and communication of workplace transgressions (Elnaga, 2012). Understanding the workplace transgressions is significant since it determines forgiveness-seeking behaviours and the severity, intentionality, and frequency of the transgressions, which play a significant role in granting forgiveness (Martinez-Diaz et al., 2021). Research also suggests that the presence of workplace transgressions is linked with lowered productivity, negative health outcomes, and increased occupational conflicts (Giebels & Janssen, 2005; Toussaint et al., 2018).

Theme 3 reflects that certain facilitating strategies are used by employees to forgive their co-employees for their wrongdoings at the workplace. For example, they forgave their co-employees by using strategies such as recognition, appreciation, scolding, developing new understanding, and direct communication. The major precursors of forgiveness include unavoidability of workplace relationships, assumed harm of holding transgressions for a longer time, levels of manageability, presence of positive others, and perceived loss. These observations provide support to the notion that a sense of wrongdoings and/or awareness and other facets of transgressions are linked with forgiveness in the workplace and may be considered as one of the antecedent factors for an act of forgiveness. Again, there is little research on the facilitating factors of workplace forgiveness.

To some extent, the study findings lend support to previous research. For example, a recent study suggests that a variety of methods are used by individuals such as apologies, restorative action, relational caring behaviours, and diverting behaviours to seek forgiveness in the workplace (Martinez-Diaz et al., 2021). Similarly, empathy, rectification, and rebuilding trust have been suggested to ease forgiveness (Chi et al., 2019). Similar to the current study findings, previous research has also noted the fear of losing relationships as an important factor behind forgiveness (Sheldon & Antony, 2019). Thus, the observed link between the availability of others in the workplace and forgiveness in the present study may be explained as an indirect or mediated effect. Some earlier studies have documented that the availability of others in the workplace helps in building trust which, in turn, may facilitate forgiveness (Strelan et al., 2017).

Theme 4 reveals that there are many obstacles to workplace forgiveness. For instance, nature and fear of reoccurrences of the wrongdoing, anger, and low self-control are some of the described difficulties in forgiving the co-employees. Similar to the current study findings, previous research reports that negative feelings (anger, jealousy, etc.) of victims toward the transgressors prohibit them from granting forgiveness (Fehr & Gelfand, 2012). Similarly, severe transgression and negative intentions of transgressors are suggested to lower the occurrence of forgiveness (McCullough et al., 2003). Research suggests that transgressions that challenge victims' self-esteem, morality, and identity are also difficult to forgive (Pearce et al., 2018).

Social pressure (Raj & Wiltermuth, 2016) and fear of reoccurrence of transgressions and bad intentions of transgressors (Martinez-Diaz et al., 2021) have been suggested to lower forgiveness. Past similar experiences of transgressions are also found to hinder forgiveness (Cao et al., 2021). Research suggests that increased anger and decreased happiness may lower self-control that, in turn, may decrease workplace forgiveness (Liu & Li, 2020). Sustained negative thoughts or feelings about a transgression cause rumination. Dwelling on the past experiences of a betrayal may lead to rumination that lowers forgiveness (McCullough et al., 2001). Thus, it is evident that the current study findings are well supported by previous research.

Theme 5 denotes a variety of intrapersonal, interpersonal, and organisational benefits of observing forgiveness at the workplace. These include positive emotions, relationship satisfaction, good relations, harmony, a healthy work environment, positive work culture, and efficiency. Similar to this study, some benefits of forgiveness have been mirrored in earlier studies for individual and interpersonal situations. For example, forgiveness has been argued to carry positive emotions and cognitions that directly strengthen physical and psychological health, and positive life outcomes by shaping perceptions, responsivity, attributions, and physiological processes (Karner-Huțuleac, 2020; Toussaint et al., 2018).

Previous research also found that forgiveness promotes feelings of benevolence toward the transgressor (Martinez-Diaz et al., 2021). Workplace forgiveness was found to enhance the health and well-being benefits of employees (Cox et al., 2012). Forgiveness has been reported to lower stress, rumination, and hostility among employees (Friedberg et al., 2005) and enhance the level of self-esteem (Hong et al., 2020) and positive workplace culture (Toussaint et al., 2018). These, in turn, may improve workplace outcomes. Forgiveness was also found to regulate the emotions of individuals (Ho et al., 2020).

Research reported that there is a reciprocal influence of forgiveness and organizational culture that allows organizational climates to develop restorative justice, compassion, and self-control (Fehr & Gelfand, 2012). Another study found workplace forgiveness to increase creativity, productivity, and greater flexibility to adapting changes (Stone, 2002). A recent study also suggests that workplace forgiveness predicts better work outcomes comprising higher job satisfaction, higher work engagement, and lower burnout (Cao et al., 2021). Thus, the majority of the described forgiveness benefits in the present study are supported by previous findings.

The study findings help develop new insights into the nature and dynamics of forgiveness in organisational settings. It has shown close associations with the perceived performance, functioning, and productivity of the organisations. Forgiveness has been observed to be associated with various non-organisational outcomes. Some peculiarities in forgiveness in the workplace were also noted. For example, the workplace setting is characterized by some definite and structured sources of transgressions that annoyed all the participants alike. Moreover, forgiveness was recognized by most of them to carry significant implications for health, relationship, teamwork, decision making, productivity, and general progression of their organisations. The findings provided initial clues of dissimilar nature, dynamics, and challenges of the perceived transgressions and forgiveness for the employees belonging to different organisations.

In essence, perception of transgression at the workplace due to stress, poor work culture, poor working conditions, and reflections of negative social conditions and practices is natural. Different components of an organisational system are characterized by dissimilar challenges of developing, maintaining, and preserving human strengths like forgiveness. Forgiveness reflects its significant links with performance, health, well-being and the development of positive and productive organisational culture and practices. In essence, forgiveness represents a promising construct that can be cultivated to give new momentum to the all-round development of individuals, organisations, and workplace human issues with appropriate methods.

A unique finding of the study is that the mechanisms and consequences of forgiveness have provided some initial clues to the coexistence of both individualism and collectivism in India as suggested by some earlier researchers (e.g., Pandey et al., 2021). Some causes of the perceived wrongdoings may be viewed as reflecting an individualistic view. For example, jealousy, pulling one down, strong differences in opinions and choices, anger, use of demeaning words, scolding, lying, cheating, and negative attitudes may come under this category. On the other hand, poor conformity, poor task coordination, social loafing, discrimination, non-cooperation, lack of support, and favouritism would likely fall under the collectivistic view. As this study could not cover this issue in its full length, further studies are needed to understand the impacts of the two coexisting cultural views.